IR

-          Characteristics of a state: territory, legitimate government, loyal population, recognition of other states

-          Values of state systems: security (realism), freedom (liberalism), order and justice (int. society), welfare (IPE)

-          Values of international society: international peace and security, state sovereignty, self-determination, non-intervention, non-discrimination

Westphalian Society

-          Peace of Westphalia in 1648. Set the principles of sovereignty.

-          Based on secular principles: every king is independent, ruler decides on values and norms, states would mutually assure balance of power

-          Non-intervention: states would not intervene with values of other states

-          Principles: equality, legitimacy, diplomacy, balance of power

-          In 1960 this system became international la

Realism

-          states are principal actors, of central importance

-          states are unitary and rational

-          national security issues are most important

-          international system is an anarchy, no authority above states

-          pessimistic view of human nature

Classical Realism - focuses on human nature, as unchanging and self-interested. Allows to some extent certain values and norms, universally applied. Most important concept in international politics is power. Political sphere is autonomous, independent on other spheres.

Classical Realists: Thucydides, Machiavelli, Hobbes (Security Dilemma),

Neorealism - structure - anarchy. Anarchy determines behavior. Outcome of anarchy is balance of power. Maintenance of balance of power is key to int. peace and security. Ultimately states will act to help themselves.

Neorealists: Morgenthau, Waltz, Mearscheimer

-          multipolar: power divided by 3 or more countries

-          bipolar: two states have almost same power and much more than other states

Liberalism

-          non state actors more important

-          multiple issues: environmental, population growth, trade, human rights etc

-          human nature is not evil

-          belief in progress and peaceful and cooperative solutions

-          states are not main actors, we do not live in absolute anarchy

-          rights and freedoms of individual

Classical Liberalists: Locke, Bentham, Kant.

Sociological Liberalism: relations between individuals, groups & societies. Transnationalism - relations that cross borders, not just state-state relations. Traits of modernization - Internet, development of European society. Globalization - emergence of global culture, economic transformation, global civic society.

Interdependence Liberalism: states depend on each other. Modernization increases level of interdependence between states. Transnational actors important. Welfare not security most important issue.

Institutional Liberalism: international institutions promote cooperation between states. Reduce state's fear of each other. Can emerge naturally, voluntarily, promoting common good.

Republican Liberalism: Democracies won't go to war with each other. Democracies have economic ties, same values, idea of peaceful conflict resolution etc

Decision-making Liberalism: how certain aspects of domestic decision-making influences important outcomes.

International Society

-          middle way between realists and liberalists. IR a society of sovereign states

-          states are sovereign, but certain principles do exist

-          main actors - statespeople

-          values: order, justice, state sovereignty, human rights

-          main point - preservation and promotion of international order. Great powers have responsibility to sustain order between states.

-          Three types of responsibilities: national, international and humanitarian

International Societist: Hedley Bull ("International Society")

IPE

-          relationship between politics and economics

-          debates: hegemonic stability, development & underdevelopment, globalization & changing role of states

Mercantilism: economy should serve politics. National interests rule over market place. States are main actors, state power - economic goal. Excessive economic dependence should be avoided. When economic and security interests conflict, security should have priority.

Economic Liberalism: free market economy, minimum government interference. Economic sphere is autonomous. Individuals and private firms main actors. Market economy - autonomous sphere. Economic goal - maximum well-being. Adam Smith.

Marxism: economy is inequality between social classes. Wealth of rich is dependent on poverty of poor. Politics is determined by socio-economic content. Looks at states and nonstate actors in terms of classes cooperating in a capitalist system. Historical evolution evolves from class differences. Issues of war and peace deriving from economic causes. Two elements of society: substructure and superstructure. Two classes: bourgeoisie and proletariat. Most important debate - development and underdevelopment in the III world.

WORLD SYSTEM THEORY - divides the world into three parts - core, periphery and semi-periphery. Raw material prices stay the same while the costs of products are increasing. Unequal exchange - wages and work rights do not match in the core and periphery.

DEPENDENCY THEORY - periphery most dependent on production of raw material. Existence of separatist states despite capitalist theory of spreading

Methodology

-          the way we gather facts and knowledge influences outcome

-          conclusions are influenced by processes used to come to them.

Post-positive theories: critical theory, post-modernism theory, constructivism, and normative theory.

Critical theory: very critical of positivism - believes that positivists are so concentrated on status quo, too conservative. Should take broader viewpoint. All knowledge is biased. Knowledge inherently political.

Post-modernism theory: Rejects idea that objectivity is possible. Very critical of big theories of the world. Believe world is too biased and changing to have such broad and general theories. Theories contaminated by standpoints and prejudices.

Constructivism: our understanding of the world is a social construction. Emphasize role of shared knowledge and ideas of the social world. Anarchy is what states make of it (Wendt). If our shared knowledge of the world changes, we can also change.

Normative theory: moral aspects of international relations. Look at the world as it ought to be. Relationship between facts and values - they shouldn't be separated. Relativism - values are not universal, usually are specific to particular cultures, circumstances. Universalism - there are certain values that apply to all circumstances.

 International law sets normative framework

1. laws of war (states won't attack each other unless in self defense). Borders sacred. Legal wars
2. laws in war - what are legal and illegal forms of conduct in war. Can't kill non-combatants, protect civilians, soldiers have right to surrender, Red Cross territories respected as neutral etc.

Individuals as well as states can be held responsible for violating these laws.

- Gender: Anne Tickner, reformulated Morgenthau's 6 principles of the realist view of the world. Feminists especially critical of realism. Liberal feminism: emphasizes equality between men and women. Examined in terms of sameness. Women need greater representation in arenas of w. politics. Women are underrepresented. Look at promoting more equality, increasing female roles in politics etc.

IRREDENTISM - goal of regaining lost property

SECESSION - efforts by a sub state area to draw borders around itself and create own state

ETHNOCENTRISM - see own group favorably and out-group in unfavorable terms, even to point where other group is dehumanized so that it becomes feasible to violently attack.

DÉTENTE - regulating arms race - emergence of more cooperative relations between the US and Russia in the 1970's.

MAD - Mutually Assured of Destruction - During Cold War - both countries had far more than enough to massively retaliate

PROLIFERATION - spread of various types of weapons capabilities to states that had previously lacked these capabilities.

SELF DETERMINATION - group that feels dominated might want greater influence in decisions.

CULTURAL RELATIVITY - idea that there are certain cultural practices that can't be judged by other countries

UNIVERSALISM - idea that there are particular norms and they should be universal to all countries.

SEPARATISM - when a group of people wants own territory

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT - development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of the future generations to fulfill their needs.

DESPARITY - differences in wealth

THE COMMONS - areas of the world that arent individually owned (oceans etc)

COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGE - production of a good service at a lower cost than the competitions.

DETTERENCE - when a state presents a credible military threat to its potential enemy

GNP - Gross National Product - total monetary value of all goods and services produced by economy in given year.

HARD CURRENCY - currencies used in international markets -corporations and governments accept them

IMPORT SUBSITUTION - an economic strategy to avoid trade but work on development - developing local industries to replace imports

EXPORT LED GROWTH - country will develop industries that can compete in world market.

INDIGENOUS PEOPLE - the original people of an area who have lost political control over their ancestral lands (ex. Nunavut in Canada)

IMF - International Monetary Fund - provides loans to other members to stabilize their currency

GLOBALIZATION - spread of a culture to other states, emergence of one world-dominant culture.

PATERNALISM - acting as a father, doing for someone's "own good".

NATIONALISM - and individual's feeling of identity within an ethnic group based on shared traits - language, religion, culture, history

PERCEPTUAL SELECTIVITY - some information gets to through to conscious thought, while other facts may be ignored or misinterpreted.

IGO - International Governmental Organization - where states are members (UN, EU)

NGO - Non Governmental Organization - where individuals or private groups are members (Red Cross etc)

PROTECTIONISM - a government policy using tariffs and other regulations to restrict imports and keep out foreign competition.

ASSIMILATION - a view that people will people will eventually give up customs of inferior culture to become members of a superior one.

RACISM - judging of groups or individuals based on culturally defined understandings of biological differences.

COMMUNITARIALISM - view that a group is more important than the individual when thinking about rights.

TOLERANCE - acceptance of cultural differences without ethnocentric judgment.

Ethnicity and Global Diversity

-          Hunters and gatherers:  People in bands share with one another. All benefit from the successes of any one individual. Once the plats and animals of one area are depleted, they are forced to move their camps to a new place. No designated leaders in bands. Competition between bands is minimal. Cooperation is essential ideal.

-          Agriculturalists: own personal possessions. Some are more prestigious than others. Poorer clans become dependent on the generosity of richer ones in times of need. Equality not an ideal. Social rank becomes issue. Outstanding individuals are recognized and followed.

-          Pastoralists: farmers as well, but consider farming secondary in status to herding cattle. Nomadic movement. Differences in wealth are clear, dictate difference in status. Raiding is common.

-          State organization: primitive states are dependent on agriculture as major source of food. Economic specialization and market exchange. Certain groups of people are considered inherently better than others. Warfare common. Industrialism changes focus from farm to factory.

Biologically there is only once race - homo sapiens, all closely related. The typical division of races are social arrangements. Typical race categories in US: Native American, American Asian, African, Hispanic, Caucasian. These differences are largely social, not created by biological differences.

Forces that give a nation a sense of collective identity: religion, language, history etc.

Classes: ascribed status - born into, already have royal titles or wealth. Achieved status - one earned by actions of individual.

CULTURAL RELATIVITY - idea that there are certain cultural practices that can't be judged by other cultures. (cultural pluralism)

UNIVERSALISM - idea that there are particular norms that could and should be universal to all countries. (global unity).

Perspectives: state primacy, global unity, cultural pluralism

State primacy - ultimate goal:state sovereignty. Patriotism. Seeks to strengthen present system. Sees states as important to world peace. Sees current system as good.

Global Unity - goal: unified world system. Assimilation. Seeks political integration. Sees states as artificial constructs. Sees current system as overly differentiated.

Cultural Pluralism - goal: cultural autonomy. Tolerance and diversity. Seeks to increase power of ethnic groups. Sees states as artificial constructs. Sees current system as overly centralized.

NATIONALISM

-          positive vs. negative

Positive: provides sense of belonging. In inter-state systems states seen as more legitimate when nations are presented by states. Create inspiration - music, literature.

Negative: promotes ideas of chauvinism (belief that nation is superior), xenophobia (hate of foreigners), militarism (solving my military means). Threat to peace, promotes break up of states, makes it more difficult for states to cooperate.

-          justice vs. order

justice: any ethnicity through the right of self-determination should be able to get own state if desired

Order: that would cause disorder.

-          history vs. modernity

history: certain territories might have historical facts, historical meaning and significance in states

modernity: nations are a product of modern society, needing a source of identity.

Other sources of identity: religion, family, race, class, gender

Economic Development

Development - capital accumulation (make money and have leftover to invest).

Import substitution industrialization - avoids trade but works on development (developing local industries to replace imports

Export-led growth- country will develop industries that can compete in the world market.

Sustainable development - development that meets the needs of today without compromising the ability of future generations to fulfill their needs.

Sustainability: better research, democratic values, collaboration, equity, justice, long-term solutions, integrated decision-making etc.

Global North - industrialized west

Global South - poor third world countries

Newly industrialized countries: Hong Kong, Singapore, Taiwan, South Korea

Causes for underdevelopment: low productivity, insufficient capital, few human services, lack of social cohesion, insufficient natural resources, explosive population growth

COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGE (David Richardo) - producing a good or service that costs less than the competition's.

1. LAUTARKY - self reliance - stop trading and produce own. This goes against the comparative advantage.
2. PROTECTIONISM - states encourage own exports while resist imports. Ways to resist imports:

-          tariffs: taxes imposed on imports

-          non-tariff barriers: quotas of imports

3. INDUSTRIAL POLICY - government works with countries to promote their growth. (believed that is why Japan got rich)
4. COOPERATION - idea of reciprocity in state relations, that states can cooperate

Bretton Woods 1944-1975 - especially established foundation for money.

Money can be exchanged. Exchange values between countries important because it relates to trade (exports/imports, tourism, travel), currency in itself - people can earn money.

FIXED EXCHANGE RATE - other currencies only allowed to minimally fluctuate in relation to the main currency.

FLOATING EXCHANGE RATE - values of currencies determined in relation to one another.

CONVERTIBLE (HARD) CURRENCIES - currencies that can be converted (can convert them anywhere, states, corporations accept them etc)

NON CONVERTIBLE CURRENCIES - currencies that have to be ecxchanged either through government or black market

IMF - International Monetary Fund - helps support stability of currency in states. Provides loans to countries to help them maintain their currencies.

Special Drawing Rights: each country pays money into the IMF. Money can be only purchased by state's Central Bank.

INFLATION - currency loosing its value, takes more currecy to buy something. Prices drastically going up. Hyper Inflation - extremely high uncontrolled inflation.

DEVALUATION - states unilaterally devalue own currency  - to increase demand of own products (exports).

Perspectives: liberal economics , dependency, participatory development.

Liberal economics - leading economic theory in world today. Adam Smith. Reponst to the problem of poverty by advocating economic growth strategies. Economic growth best achieved with a minimum of government intervention and a maximum of people willing to invest capital.

Dependency - free trade is in the interest of businesses in the industrial world, they use their size and wealth to keep low commodity prices. Necessity of using developing world government. A government's policies can help citizens compete with foreign companies by limiting imports and subsidizing exports.

Participatory development - focus should be on directly raising poor countries quality of life using strategies available now, instead of waiting for industrialization. Basic needs approach, sustainable development. Economic growth is not a goal in itself.

Human ecological sustainability

"Tragedy of the commons" - Hardin 1968 0 individuals don't have same interest in protecting commons. Individual corporations or states will probably continue to do things that hurt environment.

Different approaches how to preserve the Commons: 1) just exploit resources and move on; 2) privatization - individuals would have a stake in long-term preservation etc.

Important Conferences: Stockholm 1992- first environmental conference; the Brundtland Report 1987 - popularized terms of sustainable development; Earth Summit in Rio 1992 - reached several agreements both on environment and sustainable development.

Problems: global warmings (CFS's), transnational (don't affect world as a whole but cross borders), problem of global commons, ozone depletion, oceanic pollution, carbon dioxide, acid rain, erosion, toxic pollutants, extinctions of animal and plant species.

Perspectives: high technology, shared technology, appropriate technology.

High technology - optimistic about the ability of humans to overcome obstacles through their intelligence, technological innovations, and hard work. Nature exists for the use of people and provides raw material for progress. Human creativity is equal to any challenge. Progress is inherently good. Problems can be solved and new technologies can be created to overcome any obstacles to progress.

Shared technology - technology only works in open and cooperative social association of world groups. Ecological problems are global and must be solved globally. Social factors are not distractions; they are central to any successful project. Key  words - cooperation and sustainability. States, ethnic groups, classes and genders have created ecological problems and they should all be agents in creating solutions. In that way should people benefit from technology.

Appropriate technology - only those projects and techniques that fit both the cultural and physical setting of the people involved will work to serve the ecological purpose. Projects should be locally devised and locally supported. Focus is on small, low-energy designs; rejects wide use of high technology as a solution to environmental problems. Shumacher.

Peace and War

War - when conflicts between states are attempted to be solved by violence.

Realists: war is only way to resolve conflicts; resort to war for self defense; states are sovereign so no other way of solving problems; human nature is prone to violence.

Liberalists: humanitarian intervention, misperception, conflicts of values

Marxists: class, economic conflict.

Motives for war:

1. material interests:

-          territory/secession (states highly value own territory. Secession - when sub state area tries to draw borders around itself and create own state)

-          control over government (question which g'ment will control state)

-          economic conflicts (less likely to lead to war because peaceful means are sought to resolve them. Some economv conflicts affect national security)

2. clashes of ideas

-          ethnic conflicts (most frequent in current issues, has both material and nonmaterial aspects. Material - control over territory; Nonmaterial - cultural, pride)

-          religious conflicts (when both sides claim that their religious law is higher than international law. Religious fundamentalism)

-          ideological conflicts (communism, capitalism, Nazism. Most revolutions based on ideological conflicts).

WMD - Weapons of Mass Destruction - nuclear, chemical and biological weapons. Don't discriminate against who they kill. Most important reason for possessing them is to deter attack rather than attack.

MISSILES - best way to deliver WMD's. Types of ballistic missiles: ICBM's, medium range, and short range.

ARMS CONTROL - idea that weapons should be banned and states should be controlled and inspected.

DOCTRINE OF MASSIVE RETALIATION - when both sides have enough weapons to retaliate. MAD - Mutually Assured of Destruction. Both countries have enough to destroy and retaliate.

Show of force - movement of a state's military forces into a conflict situation as an implied threat. Supposed to cause the opponent to back down.

Terrorism & guerilla wars - opposite of show force. Terrorism - action of  small number of people to destabilize existing political system. Guerilla wars - more organized groups, attack military outposts and ambush army patrols etc.

Perspectives: sovereignty, world order, ethnic autonomy.

Sovereignty - goal: peace. International anarchy. Strategy - balance of power. Sees problems of existing system in aggressor states, and ethnic threats to state stability. Sees international political system as too limiting if state power. Role of force: deterrence.

World order: goal: peace, force not an option. International rule of law. Strategy - strengthen international institutions. Problems of current system: state actions based on narrow interest and perceptions. Too state-centered. Role of force: collective security.

Ethnic autonomy: goal: peace, ethnic justice. Ethnic rights. Strategy - decentralize power. Problem of current system - domination of state governments. Too state centered. Role of force: dangerous in most situations, given the power of governments.

 Human Rights

Three generations of rights:

1. FIRST generation - classic rights - of free speech, free press, right to elect leader etc
2. SECOND generation - economic and social issues, right to education, adequate standard of living, food, clothing, housing
3. THIRD generation - cultural rights- rights of people, right to preserve culture, practice religion etc.

Enforcing one type of rights might violate another. Liberals see first generation as most important.

Other stuff:

 HUNTINGTON - "Clash of civilizations" - Cold War was clash of ideologies. Now that war is  over, the struggle will be between cultures. "kin country syndrome" - countries that are alike will stick with each other.

FUKUYAMA - more optimistic view. Democratic forms of government. Cold war signified end of history, world was headed in direction where liberal democracy was what would be guiding world affairs.

BENJAMIN BARBER - "Jihad vs. McWorld" - looks at future an sees it as a confrontation between "the cosmopolitan future" and "the tribal past". Both have potentially negative outcomes in the world. McWorld based on consumption and profit, not freedom and equality. Both undermine rule of law.